Intergenerational mobility explained
At the 93% Club, we believe that where you start in life should never determine where you end up. But we know that, too often, it does.
Family background still plays a huge role in shaping education, career prospects, and future opportunities. In our recent survey of 10,000+ individuals, the reality was clear and alarming: financial difficulties at university (and beyond) rise significantly amongst those from a working class background. As do the rates of discrimination and prejudice.
Understanding this is where intergenerational mobility comes in.
In this article, we break down what intergenerational mobility means, why it matters for students like us, and what we can do to level the playing field.
What is intergenerational mobility?
Intergenerational mobility is the extent to which children's economic and social outcomes are related to those of their parents, or the generations before them.
If there is high intergenerational mobility, children are more likely to achieve economic success, regardless of their family background. However, if there is low intergenerational mobility, this means that individuals’ economic and social outcomes are more likely to be similar to those of their parents.
Types of intergenerational mobility
There are two main types of intergenerational mobility: upward mobility and downward mobility.
Upward mobility occurs when a child achieves a higher economic and social status than their parents. Downward mobility occurs when a child's economic and social status is lower than that of their parents.
Ideally, we want to see high upward mobility and low downward mobility. This would mean that individuals have the opportunity and are likely to improve their economic and social standing irrespective of their family background and income.
How is intergenerational mobility measured?
Intergenerational mobility can be measured in a few different ways, usually based on: income, educational attainment, and occupations. Let’s unpick each of these.
Income
The most common way to measure intergenerational mobility is based on intergenerational income elasticity (IGE).
Put simply, this measures the relationship between a parent’s income and the income their child goes on to receive.
More specifically, the IGE measures how a 1% increase in a parent’s income impacts the income of their child later down the line. The scale runs from zero to one, with zero indicating perfect mobility. A score of zero will mean that the child’s economic outcome isn’t related to the income of their parents. Meanwhile, a score of one will indicate immobility, meaning that a child's economic outcome is the same as that of their parents.
2. Educational attainment
But intergenerational mobility isn’t just about a child’s future income. It’s also about their educational attainment, which is measured using the intergenerational educational mobility (IEM) scale.
This essentially measures the extent to which a parent’s educational attainment correlates with that of their child. If a child goes on to outperform their parents academically, intergenerational mobility occurs. However, if there’s a strong relationship between the educational attainment of a parent and their child, this suggests social immobility instead.
3. Occupation
People also measure intergenerational social mobility based on the occupations of both the parent and their child. This is called intergenerational occupational mobility (IOM).
This is a popular way to look at social mobility because it ties together both the educational attainment required to get the job, and the income that the individuals receive as a result of it.
Broadly speaking, this way of measuring intergenerational mobility works by assessing the relationship between the occupation of a parent and the occupation of their child later.
These occupations are ranked on a variety of factors, including the skills required, the nature of the work and the salaries. However, the main idea is that individuals that move up the occupational ladder ahead of their parents are more socially mobile, and those that stick to similar professions are less so.
What does intergenerational mobility mean for students?
The state of intergenerational mobility in the UK affects students in a few ways, and there are a few trends to consider.
Unequal distribution of academic resources
It’s no secret that our parents’ income can determine the quality of education that we receive, and the resources available as part of this education. Wealthier families can afford private education, with these privately educated students receiving disproportionately more resources.
In fact, private school fees in England are 90% higher than state school spending figures per pupil, and other research finds that the resources afforded to private school pupils are roughly three times greater than the resources afforded to state-educated students.vThis, in turn, affects the quality of education that state-educated students receive compared to privately educated students.
Class size is the perfect example of this, because private schools have significantly smaller class sizes than state schools, and this results in more positive learning outcomes.
According to research by the EEF, reducing the class size provides roughly two months of additional progress over the course of the academic year. While the data here is limited, this outcome makes sense because smaller class sizes mean more frequent and detailed feedback for students, and faster learning as a result.
Higher grades on average for privately educated students
Another trend is that those from more well-off families perform better academically than low income, state educated students.
A study by IFS found that students who are eligible for free school meals perform significantly worse at every stage of school based on the qualifications they receive and other development metrics. Given that students who receive free school meals are from families with income-related benefits, there’s a clear correlation between income and academic performance for many families.
This attainment gap was also clear in 2021 when privately educated students in England saw 70% of A-level results being A* or A, compared to just 39% for state educated students.
This is problematic because higher education qualifications are closely tied to better employment opportunities. In fact, research by IFS finds slower earnings growth for those with lower qualification levels.
How can we encourage intergenerational mobility?
There are several factors that contribute to intergenerational mobility, including access to education, economic opportunities, social networks, and the existence of institutional barriers that prevent certain groups from advancing. For example, in countries where education is highly valued and accessible to all, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to have the opportunity to improve their socioeconomic outcomes.
In contrast, in countries where access to education is limited or unequal, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to have the opportunity to improve their socioeconomic outcomes. This can create a cycle of poverty and disadvantage that is difficult to break.
Economic opportunities and social networks also play a significant role in intergenerational mobility. In countries where there are a wide range of economic opportunities available, and where social networks are strong and supportive, children from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to be able to overcome the barriers to success.
Intergenerational mobility around the world
The concept of intergenerational mobility is based on the idea that in a truly meritocratic society, a person's social and economic status should be determined solely by their individual efforts and abilities, rather than their family background.
If this were the case, we would expect to see a high degree of mobility between generations, with children from disadvantaged backgrounds having an equal chance of achieving success as those from more privileged backgrounds.
Yet, mobility looks very different depending on where you grow up.
Nordic countries (like Denmark and Finland) show some of the highest levels of mobility in the world. Strong welfare systems, universal access to high-quality education, and generous childcare policies mean children from low-income families have a genuine chance to climb the ladder.
The United States, by contrast, has one of the lowest mobility rates among developed nations. University is expensive, healthcare is tied to income, and access to elite networks often depends on family wealth. This locks many people into the same social class as their parents.
The UK falls somewhere in the middle, but closer to the US than the Nordics. Research shows that social class here is still strongly linked to where you grew up, what school you attended, and the connections your family can provide.
What role can students and the 93% Club play?
At The 93% Club, we know intergenerational mobility is not just a statistic — it’s lived experience. For many of us who went through the state school system, the barriers discussed above are very real: larger class sizes, fewer resources, lower grades on average, and reduced access to the networks that often shape future careers.
We also know that talent is spread evenly, but opportunity is not. That’s why our mission is to level the playing field for state-educated students, ensuring that background doesn’t define destiny. By building networks, providing mentorship, and connecting members with opportunities, we aim to break down the barriers to upward mobility.
Why this matters
The UK still faces one of the largest education-based attainment gaps in the developed world, and intergenerational mobility remains stubbornly low compared to other countries. Without change, this means too many students will continue to see their future defined by their parents’ circumstances rather than their own abilities and ambitions.
But this is not inevitable. With targeted policies, fairer access to education, and initiatives like the 93% Club, we can work towards a society where potential — not privilege — shapes opportunity.
Our call to action
To our members: use this community. Whether it’s attending events, seeking mentorship, or building professional connections, the 93% Club exists to help you access the same opportunities that others often take for granted.
To employers, policymakers, and institutions: we ask you to recognise the systemic barriers that hold talented young people back — and to commit to breaking them down. Recruitment practices, access schemes, and investment in state education all have a vital role to play in creating a fairer future.
Because in the end, intergenerational mobility isn’t just about economics. It’s about fairness, wellbeing, and building a society where everyone — regardless of where they come from — has a genuine chance to succeed.
